Ds Benson Once Again the Monoglian

Mongol invasions of the Levant (1260-1323)

Mongol invasions of the Levant Mamluk-Ilkhanid State of war
1260 Mongol offensives in the Levant
Date 1260–1323 Location Levant and Anatolia Result Mongols conquer part of the Abbasid Caliphate and Ayyubid Sultanate but neglect to conquer the Egyptian Mamluk Sultanate The Treaty of Aleppo
Belligerents
Ilkhanate of the Mongol Empire Cilician Armenia Kingdom of Georgia Seljuk Sultanate of Rum Antioch-Tripoli Yuan Empire Golden Horde of the Mongol Empire (1259–1264) Knights Templar Knights Hospitaller	Egyptian Mamluk Sultanate Ayyubid remnants Nizari Ismailis of Syria Golden Horde of the Mongol Empire (after 1264) Karamanid rebels Abbasids
Commanders and leaders
Kitbuqa † Baidar Samgar Abagha Möngke-Temur Ghazan Kutluqshah Oljeitu Hethum of Armenia Leo II of Armenia Demetrius 2 of Georgia Bohemond 6 of Antioch Jacques de Molay	Qutuz Baibars Salar Baibars Two Al-Nasir Muhammad Qalawun Mehmet of Karaman An-Nasir Yusuf Al-Kamil Muhammad Abu'fifty-Qasim Ahmad al-Mustansir † Al-Musta'sim Sulaiman Shah
Forcefulness
Unknown	Unknown
Casualties and losses
Unknown (heavier than the Mamluks)	Unknown (heavy)

Starting in the 1240s, the Mongols fabricated repeated invasions of Syria or attempts thereof. Almost failed, but they did accept some success in 1260 and 1300, capturing Aleppo and Damascus and destroying the Ayyubid dynasty. The Mongols were forced to retreat inside months each time by other forces in the area, primarily the Egyptian Mamluks. Since 1260, information technology had been described as the Mamluk-Ilkhanid War.^[one]

First invasion [edit]

During the governorship of Bachu in Persia, the Mongolian regular army nether Yisaur attacked Syria in 1244. The reasons for the assault are unclear, but it may have been in retaliation for the Syrian participation on the Seljuk side in the Battle of Köse Dağ.^[2] In the autumn 1244, Yisaur concentrated the Mongol forces in the upper Tigris valley where they subjugated the Kurdish province of Akhlat. Moving beyond, the Mongolian ground forces encountered no resistance and ravaged the surface area en route. The fortified cities were untaken in his advance because Yisaur was not prepared for siege assault. Passing through the territory of the city of Urfa, he crossed the Euphrates.

He marched direct to Aleppo but went equally far as Hailan before the climate impaired his ground forces's movements. Yisaur sent envoys to Aleppo to need submission of tribute, which Malik agreed to pay. The same need were sent to Bohemond of Antioch who chose non to fight them instead of disobedience.^[iii]

Yisaur withdrew his strength back up the Euphrates valley and received the submission of Malatia. In Egypt, Sultan every bit-Salih Ayyub decided to acquiesce to the results and made no attempt to raise an army to encounter the Mongols who had invaded his dominions in Syria.

In 1251, as an expediency to buy peace, Sultan an-Nasir Yusuf sent his representatives to Mongolia for the election of Möngke and agreed to brand Syria a vassal country of the Mongol Empire.

1260 invasion [edit]

In 1255, Hulagu sought to further expand the Empire into the Middle East under orders from his older brother, the Not bad Khan Möngke. Hulagu's forces subjugated multiple peoples along the manner, virtually notably the centre of the Islamic Empire, Baghdad, which was completely sacked in 1258, destroying the Abbasid Caliphate. From in that location, the Mongol forces proceeded into Syria.

In 1260, Egypt was under the control of the Bahri Mamluks, while most of the Levant (aside from the Crusader states) was still under the control of Ayyubid princes. The Mongols, for their part, had combined their forces with that of their Christian vassals in the region, the Georgians; the army of Cilician Armenia nether Hethum I, King of Armenia; and the Franks of Bohemond Half dozen of Antioch. In what is described by the 20th-century historians René Grousset and Lev Gumilev equally the "xanthous crusade" (Croisade Jaune),^{[4] [5]} the combined forces captured the metropolis of Aleppo in January, and and so on March ane, 1260, under the Mongol Christian general Kitbuqa, took Damascus. The last Ayyubid king, An-Nasir Yusuf, was captured by the Mongols near Gaza in 1260. Nonetheless, Hulagu promised him that he would appoint An-Nasir Yusuf every bit his viceroy in Syrian arab republic.^[6] With the Islamic power center of Baghdad and Syria gone, the eye of Islamic ability transferred to the Mamluks in Cairo.

Hulagu's intention at that point was to go along due south through Palestine to Arab republic of egypt, to appoint the Mamluks. Nonetheless, Möngke died in belatedly 1259, requiring Hulagu to render to Karakorum to engage in the councils on who the next Corking Khan would be. Hulagu departed with the bulk of his forces, leaving only about 10,000 Mongol horsemen in Syrian arab republic under Kitbuqa. Some of Kitbuqa'south forces engaged in raids southwards towards Egypt, reaching as far as Gaza, where a Mongol garrison was established with one,000 troops.

The Mamluks took advantage of the weakened state of the Mongol forces, and, negotiating a passive alliance with the remnants of the Crusader forces in Acre, advanced northwards to engage the Mongols at the pivotal Battle of Ain Jalut in September 1260. The Mamluks achieved a decisive victory, Kitbuqa was executed, and the battle established a high-h2o mark for the Mongol conquests. In previous defeats, the Mongols had always returned later on to re-take the territory, but they were never able to avenge the loss at Ayn Jalut. The border of the Mongol Ilkhanate remained at the Tigris River for the duration of Hulagu'south dynasty. Sultan An-Nasir and his brother were executed after Hulagu heard the news of the defeat of Kitbuqa at Ain Jalut.

In Dec 1260, Hulagu sent 6,000 troops back into Syria, but they were defeated at the First Battle of Homs.

Caliphate of Cairo and the rebellion in Mosul [edit]

After the fall of Baghdad in 1258, a few of Abbasid princes fled to Syria and Arab republic of egypt. There, the Abbasids however maintained a feeble evidence of authority, confined to religious matters, under the Mamluks. Only their dominance was limited to being figureheads. Kickoff of the Caliphs in Cairo, Al-Mustansir Ii was dispatched to Mesopotamia by Baibars. The Caliph was reinforced with Syrian auxiliaries and the Bedouins. Still, he was totally crushed by the Mongol vanguard in South Republic of iraq in 1262. The Mongol protectorate and ruler of Mosul, Badr al-Din's sons sided with the Mamluks and rebelled against the rule of Hulagu. This led to the destruction of the city state and the Mongols finally suppressed the rebellion in 1265.

1271 invasion [edit]

The Mamluks under Baibars (xanthous) fought off the Franks and the Mongols during the Ninth Crusade.

The second Mongol invasion of Syria took place in Oct 1271, when 10,000 Mongols led by general Samagar and Seljuk auxiliaries moved southwards from Rûm and captured Aleppo; withal they retreated dorsum across the Euphrates when the Mamluk leader Baibars marched on them from Egypt.^[7]

Area alliances [edit]

In the second half of the 13th century, ceremonious war had erupted in the Mongol Empire. In the Middle East, this manifested as disharmonize betwixt the Mongols of the Golden Horde, and the Mongols of the Ilkhanate, who battled over claims on Georgia and Azerbaijan. Both the Golden Horde and the Ilkhanate sought to strengthen their position via trade agreements or other types of alliances with other powers in the expanse. In 1261, Berke of the Golden Horde centrolineal with the Mamluk Sultan Baibars,^{[8] [9] [10] [11] [12]} confronting their common enemy the Ilkhanate. This brotherhood was both strategic, and besides in terms of merchandise exchanges, as the Egyptians had been the Gilt Horde'southward long-continuing merchandise partner and ally in the Mediterranean.^[13]

For their part, the Mongols of the Ilkhanate sought (unsuccessfully) an alliance with the Franks of Europe,^[14] just did grade a Byzantine-Mongol brotherhood with the Christian Byzantine Empire.

Conflict betwixt the Golden Horde and the Il-Khans [edit]

The two Western Mongol realms, the Golden Horde and the Il-Khanate, were already in open war. The roots of the disharmonize were related to battles between the descendants of Genghis Khan over the control of the Empire. The firsthand successor to Genghis Khan was his son Ögedei, but the leadership was then taken past force by the descendants of Genghis' son Tolui. During the reign of Kublai Khan (son of Genghis' son Tolui), descendants of Genghis's other sons Ögedei, Chagatai, and Jochi sought to oppose the rule of Kublai. The Ilkhanate had been founded by Hulagu, some other of Tolui's sons, who was therefore loyal to Kublai. The Gold Horde had been founded past Genghis' son Jochi, following the Mongol invasion of Cardinal Asia. Genghis had designated several of the territories south of the Caucasus to Jochi, specifically Georgia, and the Seljukid Sultanate.^[xv] Hulagu, with the backing of his brother the Swell Khan Kublai, invaded and captured these territories in 1256, even installing his uppercase in the center of the disputed territories, at Maragha. Berke, the leader of the Golden Horde, could not tolerate this infringement of his inheritance,^[15] and a drawn-out conflict between the ii Mongol realms continued well into the 14th century.^[16]

Ethnic and religious affinities [edit]

Diverse affinities led to a more than or less natural brotherhood between the Mongols of the Gilded Horde and the Mamluks of Egypt. The Mamluks' Empire had been founded by former slaves bought from the Kipchack territory of southern Russian federation, which was now an of import segment of the Mongol Golden Horde. There were therefore already cultural affinities between large segments of the Mongol Horde and the ruling elite of Egypt.^[17] Berke's Turkic subjects also spoke the same Turkic linguistic communication as the Mamluks.^[18] Further, the Gilt Horde, under Berke'south leadership, was the first of the Mongol states to convert to Islam,^[16] which lent to solidarity with the Islamic realms to the south.^[19] On the other hand, the Il-Khan rulers were highly favourable to Christianity, and did non commit to Islam until 1295, when the Ilkhan Ghazan, a descendant of Tolui, formerly converted when he took the throne.^[twenty] Even subsequently his conversion though, he continued to battle the Mamluks for command of Syrian arab republic, while simultaneously seeking an alliance with Christian Europe.

Mamluk-Gilded Horde rapprochement [edit]

The Aureate Horde entered into a defensive brotherhood with the Mamluks in Arab republic of egypt, with the agreement being that each realm would intervene if the other was attacked past the Ilkhanate.^{[21] [22]} This required the Il-khan to devote forces to both his northern and southern borders, and never use all forces in a single battle. On multiple occasions, the forces of the Ilkhanate would start a entrada towards Syrian arab republic in the south, only to be forced to think troops inside a few months because of attacks from the Gilded Horde in the n.^[23]

1280–81 invasion [edit]

The third major invasion took identify in 1280–81 under Abaqa Khan. Having crossed the Euphrates and captured Aleppo in 1280,^[24] the Mongols of the Ilkhanate moved as far south as Homs with 40,000 men before they were beaten back to the Euphrates river at the Second Battle of Homs in October 1281.

The Il-khan Tekuder ( r. 1282–1284) was friendly to Islam, and sent a letter to the Mamluk sultan to broach the subject of peace, but Tekuder's envoy was arrested past the Mamluks. Tekuder'southward conversion to Islam and attempts to make peace with the Mamluks were not popular with the other nobles of the Ilkhanate. When Tekuder's brother Arghun challenged him for the throne, Tekuder sought assistance in vain from the Mamluks, simply was executed. Arghun ( r. 1284–1291) took ability, and as directed past the Great Khan Kublai ( r. 1260–1294) continued Mongol attempts to conquer Syrian arab republic.

The Mamluk-Ilkhanid War: 1299–1303 [edit]

In tardily 1299, the Mongol Ilkhan Mahmud Ghazan, son of Arghun, took his army and crossed the Euphrates river to again invade Syria. They continued southward until they were slightly n of Homs,^[25] and successfully took Aleppo. There, Ghazan was joined past forces from his vassal state of Cilician Armenia.^[26]

The Mamluk relief strength sent from Damascus met the Mongol army northeast of Homs, at the Battle of Wadi al-Khazandar (sometimes chosen the Battle of Homs) in Dec 1299. The Mongols had some 60,000 troops, with almost xl,000 Georgian and Armenian auxiliaries, and routed the Egyptian Mamluks with their much smaller force of 20,000–30,000 troops. The Mamluks retreated, and were harassed past Maronite and Druze bowmen who wanted independence from the Mamluks. One group of Mongols likewise split up off from Ghazan's army, and pursued the retreating Mamluk troops every bit far as Gaza,^[27] pushing them back to Egypt.

1300–1301 operations from Ruad and Mongol offensives under Ghazan's general Kutluka.

The bulk of Ghazan'south forces and then proceeded onward towards Damascus. Some of the populace of Damascus upon hearing of the Mongol approach had fled to Egypt, and the governor of the urban center, Arjawash, had entrenched himself deep inside the Citadel of Damascus. The Mongols besieged the urban center for 10 days, which surrendered between Dec 30, 1299, and January 6, 1300, though its Citadel resisted.^{[28] [29]} Ghazan then withdrew well-nigh of his forces in February, promising to render in the winter of 1300–1301 to assail Egypt.^[30] The reason for the withdrawal is believed to be either the Chagatai Mongols invading their eastern borders, or the need to retreat to areas where there was improve grazing room for the horses. The Mamluks had learned that the availability of pastures was of import to the Mongols, and then had taken to burning pastureland so every bit to prevent the rapid advance of the Mongol cavalry. After Ghazan's main force withdrew, but about 10,000 horsemen remained in Syria, under the Mongol general Mulay.

With the retreat of the bulk of forces from both sides, for about three months, until the Mamluks returned in May 1300, Mulay's forces were in technical control over Syria,^[31] and some Mongols engaged in raids as far due south as Jerusalem and Gaza.^{[32] [33] [34] [35]} Withal, when the Mamluks returned from Egypt, the remaining Mongols retreated with little resistance.

Likewise in early 1300, two Frankish rulers, Guy d'Ibelin and Jean Two de Giblet, had moved in with their troops from Cyprus in response to Ghazan's earlier telephone call. They had established a base in the castle of Nephin in the lordship of Gibelet (Byblos) on the Syrian coast with the intention of joining him, but Ghazan was already gone.^{[36] [37]} They likewise started to besiege the new city of Tripoli, but in vain,^[38] and so returned to Cyprus.

In late 1300, Ghazan'south forces had dealt with the distraction of the Chagatai invasion on their northern border, and once again turned their attention to Syria. They crossed the Euphrates river between Dec 14, 1300 and Nov 1, 1301. Over again, the Mamluk ground forces in Syrian arab republic withdrew without engaging in combat, which resulted in a panic in Damascus when they heard of the new threat from the Mongols. The Syrians of Hamat were able to accomplish a small victory against the Mongols at a boxing well-nigh Aleppo by the post of Hamat. This created order in Damascus, enough for the governor to send for a larger relief forcefulness from Egypt. However, the Mongols had already left Syria due to a expiry in Ghazan Khan's family.^{[ citation needed ]}

Dominion of Bahri Mamluks (red)

The Ilkhanate returned to Syria in 1303, travelling unopposed down the Levant until they reached Damascus. However, near Damascus they were once once again soundly defeated by the Mamluks at the Battle of Marj al-Saffar in Apr 1303.

Terminal Stage: 1312 [edit]

In 1312, the new khan of the Ilkhanate, Öljaitü, pursued an aggressive policy to consolidate his rule, subduing the Caspian Province of Gilan and destroying the autonomous principality of Herat. Encouraged by the defection of some Syrian emirs, Öljaitü decided to cross the Euphrates in 1312 to attack the Mamluk Sultanate. He laid siege to the heavily fortified town of Rahbat. After about a month of fighting in which they suffered heavy casualties, the Mongols ultimately failed to take the fortified place and withdrew. This was to be the last major Mongol incursion into the Levant.^{[39] [twoscore]}

Treaty of Aleppo [edit]

The Mongol globe, ca. 1300. The gray expanse is the later Timurid empire.

Post-obit the defeat of the Mongol ruler Ghazan and the progressive conversion of the Il-Khanate to Islam, the Mongols finally were acquiescent to ceasing hostilities. The showtime contacts to found a treaty of peace were communicated via the slave trader al-Majd al-Sallami. Afterwards the initial communications, more formal letters and embassies were exchanged.^[41] Under the Ilkhanate ruler Abu Sa'id, who was post-obit the advice of his custodian Chupan, the treaty with the Mamluks was ratified in 1322/1323. Indeed, the Mongols never fabricated peace with the Muslims until they themselves became Muslims. A state of affairs analogous to the infidel Viking conquest of Normandy and England, where Viking Scandinavians never truly made peace with the Christian Kingdoms until they themselves became Christian.

Post-obit the treaty and a period of peace, the Il-Khanate further disintegrated, and effectively disappeared during the 14th century.^[41]

References [edit]

Citations [edit]

1. ^ Hemmings, Jay (2019-02-28). "When The Egyptian Mamluks Crushed The Formerly Unstoppable Mongol Army". War HISTORY ONLINE . Retrieved 2022-02-08 .
2. ^ D. Southward. Benson The Mongol campaigns in Asia, p.179
3. ^ Jeremiah Curtin The Mongols: A history, p.178
4. ^ Vasiliev, Alexander A. (1958). History of the Byzantine Empire, 324–1453. University of Wisconsin Press. p. 600. ISBN0299809269.
5. ^ Gumilev, Lev Nikolaevich (1987). Searches for an Imaginary Kingdom: The Legend of the Kingdom of Prester John. Cambridge University Press. p. 194. ISBN0521322146.
6. ^ The Cambridge History of Egypt: Islamic Egypt, 640-1517, p.255
7. ^ Runciman 1987, pp. 336–337.
8. ^ Ryley-Smith in Atlas of the Crusades, p.112 (French Edition): "When the Golden Horde centrolineal with the Mamluks, the Ilkhanate looked towards an brotherhood with the Christians"
9. ^ "The brotherhood which Berke had created between the Mongols and the Mamluks against the Ilkhanate remained abiding", Morgan, p.144
10. ^ "The Mongols of Iran were all but encircled past a chain of alliances linking the Mamluks to the Aureate Horde, and this power to Kaidu", Setton, p.529
11. ^ "The friendship between Egypt and the Golden Horde, which would terminal until the conclusion of peace between the Mamluks and the Il-Khan in 1320" The New Cambridge Medieval History, folio 710, by David Abulafia - 1999
12. ^ "In order to fight their mutual enemy [the Ilkhanate], the Kipchack Mongols and the Mamluks entered into an brotherhood." Luisetto, p.157
13. ^ Mantran, Robert (Fossier, Robert, ed.) "A Turkish or Mongolian Islam" in The Cambridge Illustrated History of the Center Ages: 1250-1520, p. 298
14. ^ Morgan, Mongols and the Westward
15. ^ ^{a b} Luisetto, p.155
16. ^ ^{a b} The Mongols, David Morgan, p.144
17. ^ "Information technology is a fact of crucial importance that the Mamluks of Egypt and the Mongols of the Golden Horde were natural allies (…) simply considering the ruling course of Egypt and an important and influential segment of the Golden Horde belonged in fact to the aforementioned ethnic group." A History of the Crusades, Kenneth Meyer Setton, p.527
18. ^ Setton, p.527
19. ^ By ultimately becoming Muslims, the Mongols of the Golden Horde conspicuously identified themselves with their Turkish subjects and with the people to the southward, rather than with the Christian Russians to the North" Morgan, p.128
20. ^ "On the contrary, Hulagu, accompanied by Dokuz Khatun greatly favoured Christianity", Luisetto, p.155-156
21. ^ "In lodge to fight their mutual enemy [the Ilkhanate], the Kipchack Mongols and the Mamluks entered into an alliance. This was based on a defensive rather than an offensive policy: if ane of their territories was attacked, the second would fight for the other, on his ain front, in order to create a diversion or weaken enough Persian troops and so that their activity would be stopped." Luisetto, p.157
22. ^ "Before invading Syria in 1299, Ghazan was forced to transport troops in the Caucasus, in order to reinforce his Christian-Mongol troops. These were so many soldiers who could not fight in Palestine.", Luisetto, p.156
23. ^ Luisetto, p.158
24. ^ Burns 2016, p. 179.
25. ^ Demurger, p.143
26. ^ Demurger, p.142 (French edition) "He was shortly joined by Rex Hethum, whose forces seem to have included Hospitallers and Templars from the kingdom of Armenia, who participate to the rest of the campaign."
27. ^ Demurger, p.142 "The Mongols pursued the retreating troops towards the south, but stopped at the level of Gaza"
28. ^ Demurger 142-143
29. ^ Runciman, p.439
30. ^ Demurger, p.146
31. ^ Demurger (p.146, French edition): "Later on the Mamluk forces retreated south to Egypt, the principal Mongol forces retreated northward in February, Ghazan leaving his general Mulay to rule in Syria".
32. ^ "Meanwhile the Mongol and Armenian troops raided the country every bit far due south as Gaza." Schein, 1979, p. 810
33. ^ Amitai, "Mongol Raids into Palestine (AD 1260 and 1300)"
34. ^ "Arab historians however, like Moufazzal Ibn Abil Fazzail, an-Nuwairi and Makrizi, report that the Mongols raided the land equally far as Jerusalem and Gaza"— Sylvia Schein, p.810
35. ^ The Arab historian Yahia Michaud, in the 2002 book Ibn Taymiyya, Textes Spirituels I-XVI, Chap XI, describes that there were some firsthand accounts at the fourth dimension, of forays of the Mongols into Palestine, and quotes 2 aboriginal Arab sources stating that Jerusalem was one of the cities that was invaded by the Mongols
36. ^ Demurger, p.144
37. ^ "After Ghazan had left, some Christians from Cyprus arrived in Gibelet and Nefin, led by Guy, Count of Jaffa, and Jean d'Antioche [Jean 2 de Giblet] with their knights, and from there proceeded to go to Armenia where the camp of the Tatars was. But Ghazan was gone, then they had to return."|Le Templier de Tyr, 614. Le Templier de Tyr, 614: "Et apres que Cazan fu partis aucuns crestiens de Chipre estoient ales a Giblet et a Nefin et en seles terres de seles marines les quels vous nomeray: Guy conte de Jaffe et messire Johan dantioche et lor chevaliers; et de la cuyderent aler en Ermenie quy estoit a lost des Tatars. Cazan sen estoit retornes: il se mist a revenir"
38. ^ Jean Richard, p.481
39. ^ J.J. Saunders, "History of the Mongol Conquests," page 144
40. ^ Josef W. Meri, "Medieval Islamic Civilization," page 573
41. ^ ^{a b} Meri, p.541

Sources [edit]

• Abulafia, David. The New Cambridge Medieval History. Cambridge University Press. ISBN0-521-36291-1.
• Amitai, Reuven (1987). "Mongol Raids into Palestine (Advertizing 1260 and 1300)". Journal of the Imperial Asiatic Order: 236–255.
• Burns, Ross (2016). Aleppo, A History. Routledge. ISBN9780415737210.
• Grousset, René (1935). Histoire des Croisades Iii, 1188-1291 (in French). Editions Perrin. ISBN2-262-02569-X.
• Demurger, Alain (2007). Jacques de Molay (in French). Editions Payot&Rivages. ISBN978-2-228-90235-9.
• Jackson, Peter (2005). The Mongols and the West: 1221-1410. Longman. ISBN978-0-582-36896-5.
• Lebédel, Claude (2006). Les Croisades, origines et conséquences (in French). Editions Ouest-France. ISBNtwo-7373-4136-1.
• Luisetto, Frédéric (2007) (2007). Arméniens & autres Chrétiens d'Orient sous la domination Mongole (in French). Librairie Orientaliste Paul Geuthner South.A. ISBN9782705337919.
• Maalouf, Amin (1984). The Crusades Through Arab Eyes. New York: Schocken Books. ISBN0-8052-0898-iv.
• Maalouf, Amin (1983). Les croisades vues par les Arabes. JC Lattes.
• Michaud, Yahia (Oxford Centre for Islamic Studies) (2002). Ibn Taymiyya, Textes Spirituels I-XVI (PDF) (in French). "Le Musulman", Oxford-Le Chebec.
• Morgan, David (2007). The Mongols (2nd ed.). Blackwell Publishing. ISBN978-1-4051-3539-nine.
• Richard, Jean (1996). Histoire des Croisades. Fayard. ISBNii-213-59787-1.
• Runciman, Steven (1987) [1952-1954]. A history of the Crusades 3. Penguin Books. ISBN978-0-fourteen-013705-7.
• Schein, Sylvia (October 1979). "Gesta Dei per Mongolos 1300. The Genesis of a Non-Event". The English Historical Review. 94 (373): 805–819. doi:ten.1093/ehr/XCIV.CCCLXXIII.805. ISSN 0013-8266. JSTOR 565554.

External links [edit]

• Adh-Dhababi (translated by Joseph Somogyi) (1948). "Tape of the Destruction of Damascus by the Mongols in 1299-1301". Ignace Goldziher Memorial Volume, Office ane.

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Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mongol_invasions_of_the_Levant

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